Senate hearings, a publish workplace ban, the resignation of the director of the Nationwide Bureau of Requirements, and his reinstatement after greater than 400 scientists threatened to resign. Who knew somewhat field of salt may fire up such drama?
What was AD-X2?
It began in 1947 when a bulldozer operator with a sixth grade schooling, Jess M. Ritchie, teamed up with UC Berkeley chemistry professor Merle Randall to advertise AD-X2, an additive to increase the lifetime of lead-acid batteries. The issue of those rechargeable batteries’ dwindling capability was well-known. If AD-X2 labored as marketed, hundreds of thousands of automotive homeowners would lower your expenses.
Jess M. Ritchie demonstrates his AD-X2 battery additive earlier than the Senate Choose Committee on Small Enterprise.Nationwide Institute of Requirements and Expertise Digital Collections
A fundamental lead-acid battery has two electrodes, certainly one of lead and the opposite of lead dioxide, immersed in dilute sulfuric acid. When energy is drawn from the battery, the chemical response splits the acid molecules, and lead sulfate is deposited within the answer. When the battery is charged, the chemical course of reverses, returning the electrodes to their unique state—virtually. Every time the cell is discharged, the lead sulfate “hardens” and fewer of it will possibly dissolve within the sulfuric acid. Over time, it flakes off, and the battery loses capability till it’s lifeless.
By the Thirties, so many corporations had provide you with battery components that the U.S. Nationwide Bureau of Requirements stepped in. Its lab assessments revealed that almost all have been variations of salt mixtures, similar to sodium and magnesium sulfates. Though the components would possibly assist the battery cost quicker, they didn’t lengthen battery life. In Could 1931, NBS (now the National Institute of Standards and Technology, or NIST) summarized its findings in Letter Circular No. 302: “No case has been discovered wherein this basic response is materially altered by means of these battery compounds and options.”
In fact, innovation by no means stops. Entrepreneurs stored bringing new battery components to market, and the NBS stored testing them and discovering them ineffective.
Do battery components work?
After World Struggle II, the Nationwide Higher Enterprise Bureau determined to replace its personal publication on battery components, “Battery Compounds and Options.” The publication included a March 1949 letter from NBS director Edward Condon, reiterating the NBS place on components. Previous to heading NBS, Condon, a physicist, had been affiliate director of analysis at Westinghouse Electrical in Pittsburgh and a advisor to the Nationwide Protection Analysis Committee. He helped arrange MIT’s Radiation Laboratory, and he was additionally briefly a part of the Manhattan Venture. For sure, Condon was acquainted with customary practices for analysis and testing.
In the meantime, Ritchie claimed that AD-X2’s secret components set it other than the a whole bunch of different components in the marketplace. He satisfied his senator, William Knowland, a Republican from Oakland, Calif., to put in writing to NBS and request that AD-X2 be examined. NBS declined, not out of any prejudice or in poor health will, however as a result of it examined merchandise solely on the request of different authorities businesses. The bureau additionally had a longstanding coverage of not naming the manufacturers it examined and never permitting its findings for use in commercials.
AD-X2 consisted primarily of Epsom salt and Glauber’s salt.Nationwide Institute of Requirements and Expertise Digital Collections
Ritchie cried foul, claiming that NBS was conserving new companies from coming into {the marketplace}. Merle Randall launched an aggressive correspondence with Condon and George W. Vinal, chief of NBS’s electrochemistry part, extolling AD-X2 and the testimonials of many customers. In its responses, NBS patiently identified the distinction between anecdotal proof and rigorous lab testing.
Enter the Federal Commerce Fee. The FTC had acquired a criticism from the Nationwide Higher Enterprise Bureau, which suspected that Pioneers, Inc.—Randall and Ritchie’s distribution firm—was making false promoting claims. On 22 March 1950, the FTC formally requested NBS to check AD-X2.
By then, NBS had already extensively examined the additive. A chemical evaluation revealed that it was 46.6 p.c magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt) and 49.2 p.c sodium sulfate (Glauber’s salt, a horse laxative) with the rest being water of hydration (water that’s been chemically handled to type a hydrate). That’s, AD-X2 was related in composition to each different additive in the marketplace. However, due to its coverage of not disclosing which manufacturers it assessments, NBS didn’t instantly announce what it had realized.
The David and Goliath of battery components
NBS then did one thing uncommon: It agreed to disregard its personal coverage and let the Nationwide Higher Enterprise Bureau embrace the outcomes of its AD-X2 assessments in a public assertion, which was revealed in August 1950. The NBBB allowed Pioneers to incorporate a dissenting remark: “These assessments weren’t run in accordance with our specification and subsequently didn’t point out the worth to be derived from our product.”
Removed from being cowed by the NBBB’s assertion, Ritchie was energized, and his story was taken up by the mainstream media. Newsweek’s protection pitted an up-from-your-bootstraps David towards an overreaching governmental Goliath. Commerce publications, similar to Western Building Information and Batteryman, additionally revealed flattering tales about Pioneers. AD-X2 gross sales soared.
Then, in January 1951, NBS launched its up to date pamphlet on battery components, Circular 504. As soon as once more, assessments by the NBS discovered no distinction in efficiency between batteries handled with components and the untreated management group. The Authorities Printing Workplace offered the round for 15 cents, and it was certainly one of NBS’s hottest publications. AD-X2 gross sales plummeted.
Ritchie wanted a brand new area wherein to problem NBS. He turned to politics. He known as on all of his distributors to put in writing to their senators. Between July and December 1951, 28 U.S. senators and one U.S. consultant wrote to NBS on behalf of Pioneers.
Condon was shedding his means to successfully characterize the Bureau. Though the Senate had confirmed Condon’s nomination as director with out opposition in 1945, he was underneath investigation by the House Committee on Un-American Activities for a number of years. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover suspected Condon to be a Soviet spy. (To be honest, Hoover suspected the identical of many individuals.) Condon was repeatedly cleared and had the general public backing of many outstanding scientists.
However Condon felt the investigations have been changing into an excessive amount of of a distraction, and so he resigned on 10 August 1951. Allen V. Astin grew to become appearing director, after which everlasting director the next 12 months. And he inherited the AD-X2 mess.
Astin had been with NBS since 1930. Initially working within the electronics division, he developed radio telemetry methods, and he designed devices to review dielectric supplies and measurements. Throughout World Struggle II, he shifted to navy R&D, most notably improvement of the proximity fuse, which detonates an explosive system because it approaches a goal. I don’t suppose that work ready him for the political bombs that Ritchie and his supporters stored lobbing at him.
Mr. Ritchie virtually goes to Washington
On 6 September 1951, one other authorities company entered the fray. C.C. Garner, chief inspector of the U.S. Submit Workplace Division, wrote to Astin requesting yet one more take a look at of AD-X2. NBS dutifully submitted a report that the additive had “no useful results on the efficiency of lead acid batteries.” The publish workplace then charged Pioneers with mail fraud, and Ritchie was ordered to seem at a listening to in Washington, D.C., on 6 April 1952. Extra assessments have been ordered, and the listening to was delayed for months.
Again in March 1950, Ritchie had misplaced his largest champion when Merle Randall died. In preparation for the listening to, Ritchie employed one other scientist: Keith J. Laidler, an assistant professor of chemistry on the Catholic University of America. Laidler wrote a critique of Round 504, questioning NBS’s objectivity and testing protocols.
Ritchie additionally acquired Harold Weber, a professor of chemical engineering at MIT, to agree to check AD-X2 and to work as an unpaid advisor to the Senate Choose Committee on Small Enterprise.
Life was about to get extra difficult for Astin and NBS.
Why did the NBS Director resign?
Attempting to place an finish to the Pioneers affair, Astin agreed within the spring of 1952 that NBS would conduct a public take a look at of AD-X2 in accordance with phrases set by Ritchie. As soon as once more, the bureau concluded that the battery additive had no useful impact.
Nevertheless, NBS deviated barely from the agreed-upon parameters for the take a look at. Though the bureau had an excellent scientific cause for the minor change, Ritchie had a predictably overblown response—NBS cheated!
Then, on 18 December 1952, the Senate Choose Committee on Small Enterprise—for which Ritchie’s ally Harold Weber was consulting—issued a press launch summarizing the outcomes from the MIT assessments: AD-X2 labored! The outcomes “reveal past an inexpensive doubt that this materials is in actual fact invaluable, and provides full assist to the claims of the producer.” NBS was “merely psychologically incapable of giving Battery AD-X2 a good trial.”
The Nationwide Bureau of Requirements’ common assessments of battery components discovered that the merchandise didn’t work as claimed.Nationwide Institute of Requirements and Expertise Digital Collections
However the press launch distorted the MIT outcomes.The MIT assessments had centered on diluted options and gradual charging charges, not the conventional use circumstances for cars, and even then AD-X2’s impression was marginal. As soon as NBS scientists acquired their arms on the report, they recognized the issues within the testing.
How did the AD-X2 controversy finish?
The publish workplace lastly acquired round to holding its mail fraud listening to within the fall of 1952. Ritchie didn’t attend in particular person and didn’t understand his studies wouldn’t be learn into the file with out him, which meant the listening to was decidedly one-sided in favor of NBS. On 27 February 1953, the Submit Workplace Division issued a mail fraud alert. All of Pioneers’ mail can be stopped and returned to sender stamped “fraudulent.” If this cost caught, Ritchie’s enterprise would crumble.
However one thing else occurred throughout the fall of 1952: Dwight D. Eisenhower, operating on a pro-business platform, was elected U.S. president in a landslide.
Ritchie discovered a sympathetic ear in Eisenhower’s newly appointed Secretary of Commerce Sinclair Weeks, who acted decisively. The mail fraud alert had been issued on a Friday. Over the weekend, Weeks had a letter hand-delivered to Postmaster Common Arthur Summerfield, one other Eisenhower appointee. By Monday, the fraud alert had been suspended.
What’s extra, Weeks discovered that Astin was “not sufficiently goal” and lacked a “enterprise perspective,” and so he requested for Astin’s resignation on 24 March 1953. Astin complied. Maybe Weeks thought this may be an earthly dismissal, simply one of many 1000’s of political appointments that change arms with each new administration. That was not the case.
Greater than 400 NBS scientists—over 10 p.c of the bureau’s technical employees— threatened to resign in protest. The American Academy for the Development of Science additionally backed Astin and NBS. In an editorial revealed in Science, the AAAS known as the battery additive controversy itself “minor.” “The necessary situation is the truth that the independence of the scientist in his findings has been challenged, {that a} gross injustice has been achieved, and that scientific work within the authorities has been positioned in jeopardy,” the editorial said.
Nationwide Bureau of Requirements director Edward Condon [left] resigned in 1951 as a result of investigations into his political views have been impeding his means to characterize the bureau. Incoming director Allen V. Astin [right] inherited the AD-X2 controversy, which finally led to Astin’s dismissal after which his reinstatement after a large-scale protest by NBS researchers and others. Nationwide Institute of Requirements and Expertise Digital Collections
Clearly, AD-X2’s effectiveness was not the central situation. The controversy was a stand-in for a bigger debate in regards to the function of presidency in supporting small enterprise, the usage of science in making coverage choices, and the independence of researchers. Over the previous couple of years, extremely revered scientists, together with Edward Condon and J. Robert Oppenheimer, had been repeatedly investigated for his or her political views. The request for Astin’s resignation was yet one more authorities incursion into scientific freedom.
Weeks, realizing his mistake, quickly reinstated Astin on 17 April 1953, the day the resignation was purported to take impact. He additionally requested the Nationwide Academy of Sciences to check AD-X2 in each the lab and the sphere. By the point the academy’s report got here out in October 1953, Weeks had completely reinstated Astin. The report, unsurprisingly, concluded that NBS was right: AD-X2 had no benefit. Science had received.
NIST makes a film
On 9 December 2023, NIST launched the 20-minute docudrama The AD-X2 Controversy. The movie received the Greatest True Story Narrative and Better of Pageant on the 2023 NewsFest Film Festival. I like to recommend taking the time to look at it.
The AD-X2 Controversy
www.youtube.com
Most of the actors are NIST employees and scientists, they usually actually get into their roles. A lot of the dialogue comes verbatim from major sources, together with congressional hearings and up to date newspaper accounts.
Regardless of being an in-house manufacturing, NIST’s movie has a Hollywood connection. The movie options temporary interviews with actors John and Sean Astin (of Lord of The Rings and Stranger Issues fame)—NBS director Astin’s son and grandson.
The AD-X2 controversy is simply as related at this time because it was 70 years in the past. Scientific analysis, enterprise pursuits, and politics stay deeply entangled. If the general public is to place confidence in science, it should place confidence in the integrity of scientists and the scientific technique. I’ve no objection to science being challenged—that’s how science strikes ahead—however we’ve to be sure that neither revenue nor politics is tipping the scales.
A part of a continuing series historic artifacts that embrace the boundless potential of expertise.
An abridged model of this text seems within the August 2024 print situation as “The AD-X2 Affair.”
References
I first heard about AD-X2 after my IEEE Spectrum editor despatched me a discover about NIST’s brief docudrama The AD-X2 Controversy, which you’ll, and will, stream on-line. NIST held a colloquium on 31 July 2018 with John Astin and his brother Alexander (Sandy), the place they recalled what it was prefer to be faculty college students when their father’s repute was on the road. The company has additionally compiled a beautiful list of resources, together with most of the major supply authorities paperwork.
The AD-X2 controversy performed out within the in style media, and I learn dozens of articles following the just about each day twists and turns within the case within the New York Instances, Washington Submit, and Science.
I discovered Elio Passaglia’s A Unique Institution: The National Bureau of Standards 1950-1969 to be notably useful. The AD-X2 controversy is roofed intimately in Chapter 2: Testing Can Be Troublesome.
A variety of graduate theses have been written about AD-X2. One I consulted was Samuel Lawrence’s 1958 thesis “The Battery AD-X2 Controversy: A Study of Federal Regulation of Deceptive Business Practices.” Lawrence additionally revealed the 1962 e-book The Battery Additive Controversy.
