By any measure,
Richard Garwin is among the most adorned and profitable engineers of the twentieth century. The IEEE Life Fellow has gained the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Nationwide Medal of Science, France’s La Grande Médaille de l’Académie des Sciences, and is one in all only a handful of individuals elected to all three U.S. Nationwide Academies: Engineering, Science, and Medication. At IBM, the place he labored from 1952 to 1993, Garwin was a key contributor or a facilitator on a few of the most necessary merchandise and breakthroughs of his period, together with magnetic resonance imaging, touchscreen displays, laser printers, and the Cooley-Tukey fast Fourier transform algorithm.
And all that was
after he did the factor for which he’s most well-known. At age 23 and on the behest of Edward Teller, Garwin designed the very first working hydrogen bomb, which was known as “the Sausage.” It was detonated in a check code-named Ivy Mike at Enewetak Atoll in November 1952, yielding 10.4 megatons of TNT. (The biggest detonation earlier than Ivy Mike was of a bomb code-named George, which yielded a mere 225 kilotons.)
Richard Garwin
Richard Garwin is an IBM Fellow Emeritus, an IEEE Life Fellow, and the designer of the primary working hydrogen bomb.
Not till 2001—50 years after Garwin’s work on the bomb—did his pivotal function develop into publicly identified. The definitive historical past of the hydrogen bomb, Richard Rhodes’s
Darkish Solar: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb, revealed in 1995, has barely a web page about Garwin. Nonetheless, in 1979, after struggling a coronary heart assault and considering his mortality, Teller sat down with the physicist George A. Keyworth II to document an oral testimony concerning the venture. Teller’s verbal reckoning was saved secret for 22 years, till 2001, at which period a transcript was obtained by The New York Times.
Within the transcript, Teller reductions the function of the mathematician
Stanislaw Ulam, who was thought to have been Teller’s associate in what continues to be referred to as the Teller-Ulam configuration. This “configuration” was really a theory-based framework that envisioned a two-stage thermonuclear system based mostly partly on a fission bomb (the primary stage) that will generate the big temperatures and pressures wanted to set off a runaway fusion response (within the second stage). In the identical transcript, Teller lavishes reward on Garwin’s design and declares, “that first design was made by Dick Garwin.” Due to the enduring secrecy round that first thermonuclear bomb, Garwin’s function had been largely unknown exterior of a small circle of Los Alamos physicists, mathematicians, and engineers who had been concerned with the venture—notably Teller, Enrico Fermi, Hans Bethe, and Ulam. Teller died in 2003.
Beginning within the early Nineteen Fifties and persevering with in parallel along with his profession at IBM, Garwin additionally served as an advisor or marketing consultant to U.S. authorities businesses on a few of the most significant tech-related points, and a few of the most prestigious panels, of his occasions. That work continues to this present day along with his service as a member of
the Jason group, the elite panel that gives technical and scientific recommendation, typically labeled, to the U.S. Protection Division and different businesses. Garwin, who has served in advisory roles underneath each U.S. president from Dwight Eisenhower to Barak Obama, has additionally been identified for his writing and talking on points associated to nuclear proliferation and arms management.
IEEE Spectrum spoke through videoconference with Garwin, now 96, who was at his house in Westchester County, New York.
Richard Garwin on:
Garwin arrived at Los Alamos for the second time to work as a physicist in Might of 1951. Within the interview, he spoke early on, and with out prompting, about Edward Teller’s concepts on the time about how a thermonuclear (fusion) bomb would work. Teller had not had a lot success translating his concepts right into a working bomb, partly, Garwin says, as a result of Teller didn’t perceive that the deuterium gas would “burn” (react) when it was very extremely compressed, as it could be within the primary, Teller-Ulam conception of a hydrogen bomb.
Garwin: After I obtained to Los Alamos for the second time, in 1951, I had already identified Edward Teller. He was on the physics college of the College of Chicago. And I went to Edward and I stated, “What’s the progress in your concepts for burning deuterium?” And he advised me that he had met with the mathematician, Stanislaw Ulam, who labored for him. Ulam was in his small group. Teller was allowed solely about 4 folks in his group, a lot to his misery. And he resented that. However it was the suitable alternative since you would wish an atomic bomb, in response to the Ulam-Teller idea. And there was no sense diluting the trouble on engaged on the atomic bomb.
However Edward had had for a few years a incorrect theorem which he had by no means written down. He confesses this in his 1979 paper [
Editor’s note: This is the statement dictated to Keyworth after Teller’s heart attack] by which he offers me credit score for the hydrogen bomb. However his theorem was that compression wouldn’t assist. That in case you couldn’t burn deuterium at regular liquid density—I feel it’s 0.19 grams per cubic centimeter—you possibly can’t burn it at 100-fold or 1,000-fold density. All the things would simply occur sooner, 100 occasions sooner, or 1,000 occasions sooner. This was a incorrect theorem. He had by no means written it down, and it was incorrect. And when he advised Stan Ulam, he stated in his 1979 effort, that he had been losing a variety of time speaking to Stan.
And so Edward determined that I’d write it [a detailed engineering design for a working hydrogen bomb] up and provides him a good shot. And Ulam’s concept, in response to this still-secret doc within the Los Alamos report library, was given away by the title of the report. The title of the report that’s, and at all times has been, unclassified. The primary a part of the title was: “Hydrodynamic Lenses.” The second a part of the title was: “and Radiation Mirrors.” [
Editor’s Note: The paper, published in secret in March 1951, is titled, “On Heterocatalytic Detonations I: Hydrodynamic Lenses and Radiation Mirrors,” and it is the paper that contains the first description of the Teller-Ulam configuration.]
That was the choice that Teller thought was greatest. So I went to Teller in his workplace at Los Alamos, and I requested him what had occurred. He stated that he had written up the assembly he had had just lately with Stan Ulam and that Ulam had proposed acoustic lenses, of which we had 32 on the unique implosion weapon [detonated at the Trinity Test near Alamogordo, N.M.]. So you possibly can get 32 segments of the sphere. They’d quick and gradual explosives. And so a lot of the mass of the explosive—of the 8 tons of the weapon, in all probability 4 tons was the lenses, which didn’t rely in accelerating the plutonium.
And in order that was the Nagasaki bomb and the one which was examined in Alamogordo on July 16, 1945. [Teller] advised me about his report, and that was the tip of the dialog, besides that he stated what he actually wanted was a small experiment to show to essentially the most skeptical physicists that this was the way in which to construct the atomic bomb and the hydrogen bomb. And I took that as a problem. I began and tried to make a 20-kiloton experiment, however I couldn’t make one which was sufficiently convincing and determined to make it full scale. And in order that’s what I did. I revealed my report of the Sausage based mostly on the ideas present on the time. I wrote that up and revealed it within the labeled report library, additionally on July twenty fifth, 1951.
And it was detonated, as Teller says later, “precisely as Dick Garwin had devised it,” on November 1, 1952, so simply 16 months afterwards. And it might by no means have been carried out sooner. And the one means it obtained carried out that quick was as a result of I wrote the paper all on my own. I used to be sitting within the workplace with Enrico Fermi. I had two workplaces: One was with Fermi within the theoretical division, and the opposite was within the physics division, the place I used to be engaged on growing a method for accelerating deuterons and protons to 100 kilovolts.
Garwin took exception to my suggestion that Teller “entrusted” him with the design of the primary thermonuclear bomb. He additionally revealed poignant particulars concerning the every day routine in his workplace, which he shared with Enrico Fermi.
Garwin: [Teller] challenged me. He didn’t entrust me. He didn’t know that it may very well be carried out. However he stated, “I’d like a small experiment that will persuade essentially the most skeptical and that that is the way in which to do it.” And it persuaded the one that counted—It persuaded [Los Alamos Director] Norris Bradbury, and Norris Bradbury [then allocated more resources for continued work on hydrogen bombs], with out asking anyone else, as a result of that’s how issues labored then. Truman had stated, “We’re going to construct a hydrogen bomb,” and no one knew tips on how to construct it. However Truman didn’t say that. Folks thought that Edward Teller in all probability knew tips on how to construct it. However he had been engaged on it since 1939, and he didn’t know tips on how to construct it, both. He frequently complained that he didn’t have sufficient folks. However any time, he might have written down his theorem and came upon that it was incorrect. However he came upon it was incorrect when he wrote down what he and Ulam had talked about.
After I sat within the room, it was a really small room, which had two desks, my desk confronted Fermi’s desk. I might see him face-to-face. He taught me so much the primary 12 months and the second 12 months. However solely the primary 12 months did I share an workplace with him. And that 12 months, he labored with Stan Ulam within the mornings. The coders would are available. And they’d ship the code, the outcomes of their work. They’d been following a spreadsheet that Fermi had began. The primary few strains he had really calculated and sat subsequent to the coder and calculated the primary few strains of the spreadsheet, which had been varied zones alongside the axis of this infinitely lengthy cylinder. And it began at one finish, which was enriched with tritium. And so it reacted about 100 occasions as quick as deuterium itself. And so then, the second line throughout the spreadsheet could be the second set of zones alongside the axis. And the third line could be the third set of zones, and so forth. And they also would are available with the entire thing, 100 zones, maybe. And Fermi would talk about that with the coder, after which he would consider what to calculate subsequent with Stan Ulam.
What’s it like to carry plutonium in your fingers? Garwin is among the many few folks on the planet who can let you know.
Garwin: You may put plutonium in your pocket if it’s coated with nickel, as had been the unique plutonium hemispheres for the atomic bomb. I’ve held it in my two fingers. It was a really harmful factor to do. However at Los Alamos, you possibly can be admitted to the sanctum and maintain the nickel-plated plutonium in your fingers. It’s heat, like a rabbit. And naturally, in case you isolate it, it will get even hotter.
Garwin spoke concerning the primary design of the Sausage, the primary thermonuclear bomb. He disclosed how the system persuaded Hans Bethe, a star of the Manhattan Mission and later, like Garwin, lively in arms-control causes, concerning the viability of thermonuclear weapons. In a touching apart, he remembered his spouse, Lois Garwin, to whom he was married from 1947 till her demise in 2018.
Garwin: So as to get the Sausage to work, you wanted to have a distinct means of getting equal forces on all sides. And that was the design of the full-size bomb. We used a standard atomic bomb at one finish, after which, as has been revealed since then, a cylinder containing deuterium and surrounding that, a cylinder containing hydrogen. And past that, the very heavy container. All of that was at liquid-hydrogen temperature or at liquid-deuterium temperature. I can’t go into extra element at current, even now. So I made a full-size weapon. And it was very massive. However I argued with Hans Bethe, who was head of varied committees for constructing the atomic bomb, the hydrogen bomb, despite the fact that he didn’t wish to construct it. He needed to show that it couldn’t be constructed. However he was an trustworthy man and glorious physicist. And so he accepted that it may very well be constructed.
However I by no means noticed a weapons check, not even in Nevada. By no means noticed a weapons check. However I traveled to Hawaii a few occasions through the Ivy sequence and the George sequence as a way to speak to individuals who got here from the check web site again to Hawaii to speak to me and others.
I wish to point out my spouse, Lois Garwin. I couldn’t have carried out any of this with out her. She died in 2018, February 4. And he or she was the one who took care of the youngsters, aside from waking up and diapering them or feeding them a bottle at evening, as a result of I might get up and fall asleep a lot sooner than she.
Garwin additionally weighed in on one of the vital enduring controversies of nuclear-weapons historical past, which was the relative contributions of Teller and Ulam to the Teller-Ulam configuration. Garwin was requested, was it actually the 2 of them engaged on this, or was all of it Edward Teller?
Garwin: It was actually all Edward Teller. I’ve volunteered that in varied interviews. Ulam was an excellent mathematician. However he was all in favour of issues whether or not they had been helpful or not. He jogged my memory of Samuel Eilenberg, a mathematician at Columbia with whom I used to have lunch, along with I.I. Rabi and different Nobel Prize winners. Eilenberg used to say, “It’s like a tailor. Typically, you make a swimsuit which has three sleeves, typically two sleeves, no matter seems to be greatest. Typically it’s helpful, typically it’s not. And that’s arithmetic for you.”
Why did Teller select Garwin, a 23-year-old newly minted physicist, over the various employees physicists at Los Alamos to design that first hydrogen bomb?
Garwin: Properly, he in all probability was influenced by one thing that I came upon solely in 1981. And that was in an article in Science journal. Fermi had advised folks very publicly that I used to be the one true genius he had ever met. And it was too late to ask Fermi, who died in 1954. He had stated that at a gathering at Fuller Lodge at lunchtime. That was the varsity for boys at Los Alamos that was taken over at first of the atomic bomb program. I used to be not at that lunch. And he had stated, “I’ve met the one true genius I’ve ever met.” And the folks began preening themselves and so forth, anticipating to be named by him. After which Fermi stated, “His identify’s Dick Garwin.” And I suppose I had been working, at the moment, on the hydrogen-bomb paper. Anyhow, in order that’s all I do know. These folks had been very disenchanted.
Garwin was requested which, of the various issues he invented or helped invent throughout his profession at IBM, he was most happy with. He didn’t hesitate in answering.
Garwin: Actually the Cooley-Tukey algorithm as a result of I used to be the midwife for that. I didn’t invent it. I simply sat subsequent to John Tukey. I sat subsequent to Tukey so I might eat his dried prunes, along with his permission. I had labored with him in 1953 to ’54 on the intelligence venture of the Killian Committee. There have been 67 consultants who had been members of the Killian Committee. It was a really well-received report. And I labored for six months with NSA underneath William O Baker, who was the Vice President for analysis at Bell Labs. So I labored halftime there for six months. I can’t clarify what we labored on. However I met all of the folks, Invoice Friedman [legendary cryptanalyst William F. Friedman] and others.
I labored additionally with
Jerry Wiesner. The primary time I noticed him, within the Lamp Light study, he stated, “, Dick, you possibly can both accomplish one thing or get credit score for it, however not each.”
PSAC was the President’s Science Advisory Committee. When you
look in Wikipedia, you’ll discover many gadgets for PSAC. It was shaped in 1957 as a part of the Killian Committee report. Eisenhower created PSAC, and Killian was the primary head. [Editor’s note: James Rhyne Killian was the 10th president of MIT, from 1948 to 1959.] I had two phrases on PSAC. One was with Kennedy, starting January 21, 1961, and the opposite one was with Nixon, his second time period.
After I got here house from the PSAC assembly, a two-day assembly [in 1963], I wrote the one that was head of arithmetic at Yorktown Heights. I used to be, at the moment, head of the
[IBM] Watson Scientific Laboratory, at Columbia College. And so I wrote to him and I stated, “Can you discover me a numerical analyst, anyone who can code this up and who will go to Princeton and speak with Tukey.” And he stated, “Cooley is your man.”
Jim Cooley wasn’t passionate about stopping what he was doing and going to Princeton. He wanted further affect. So I wrote him and I advised him what it was that I needed him to do. And actually, the concept got here not from Tukey, however it got here from a colleague of his at [Government Communications Headquarters] in England [mathematician
I. J. Good], a fellow whom we each knew from our days engaged on the Killian Committee. This was persuasive to Cooley, that his employment could be dependent upon his going to Princeton and speaking to Tukey. So Cooley went to Princeton, and he talked to Tukey, and I don’t know for a way lengthy, however then he sat down and he wrote a Fortran program. And I then went to the IBM Science Advisory Committee, which was headed by Jerome Wiesner, and persuaded them to make this a free-for-everybody Fortran program quite than charging cash for it. And in order that was my further contribution. And I then began distributing this system inside just a few months. I’d ship the identify of this system and other people might write in and get it. However principally, they weren’t persuaded.
Garwin counted Enrico Fermi amongst his closest associates and associates. I requested him if there was one thing about Fermi that most individuals didn’t know, and that he needed to share.
Garwin: He was a really ordinary-appearing particular person, however he had nice spherical eyes. And actually, I gave a chat on the IISS, the Worldwide Institute of Strategic Research, that means I used to be on the board for 9 years whereas my daughter, Laura, was a graduate pupil at Oxford. After which at Cambridge, she was within the first batch of girls Rhodes Students. And I noticed anyone within the entrance row who appeared very acquainted. And I spotted that it was his eyes. That he had Fermi’s eyes. It was Giulio Fermi, his son. I had met Giulio when he was 12 or 13 years previous at their house in Chicago.
And I knew Nella, the older scion, who was a daughter. And I knew Laura, Laura Fermi, after whom our daughter, Laura, is called. She was a refined particular person. However Enrico was self-taught. There was an engineer, a good friend of his father. His father, I feel, labored for the railroad. The engineering good friend would lend him books and Enrico would learn them and be taught them and be taught the assorted languages concerned. And he would remedy the issues within the books, lots of which weren’t straightforward, however nothing was too little for him or too massive. He saved superb notes, in his laboratory pocket book. And truly, he would write in my laboratory pocket book at Los Alamos, and I’d lock it up within the protected at evening in order that he wouldn’t have to do this.
There he would document the 4 shock equations and derive them and educate me tips on how to do issues like that. The diploma to which he was self-taught… He organized the youngsters, the
ragazzi, the youngsters of no matter avenue it was in Rome. And when he obtained to Rome from the place he had gone to school and went to graduate faculty, he introduced all types of individuals. A few of whom joined him in Los Alamos.
We had been good associates of the Fermis in Los Alamos. And Lois and Jeffrey, my oldest boy, had been with me within the summers. After which steadily, the opposite two kids, Tom and Laura, joined us. So there have been a few years after we had rental houses in Los Alamos as a result of folks had been at all times going away for the summer season.
Garwin, an IEEE Life Fellow, is famend for his capability to not solely perceive principle but additionally to place it to sensible use. However, his reply to the query of whether or not he considers himself an engineer or a physicist was shocking.
Garwin: I’m a physicist. I don’t assume there’s a rating. I simply don’t know sufficient to qualify as an engineer.
All by means of the 41 years he was working for IBM, Garwin was additionally terribly lively on numerous authorities committees and boards and likewise lively within the nuclear arms–management motion. I requested him how he was capable of preserve such an lively and public skilled life exterior of IBM with out elevating eyebrows.
Garwin: My settlement with IBM was that they’d not know what I used to be engaged on [outside of IBM]. They wouldn’t know what I testified about, and so forth. They usually signed an employment contract. As a result of in any other case, I knew that they’d wish to approve it. They might have legal professionals saying, “Is that this a superb factor for us to do or not?” And so then after I began testifying in Congress and the testimony was public, I made a decision that I ought to inform IBM. I advised them the identical day. I gave them a duplicate of the testimony on the similar time I gave it. I printed 100 copies, and we stood across the eating room desk in our home, and no matter kids had been of appropriate age would type this stuff or unsort this stuff and staple them collectively and put them right into a suitcase. 100 copies of 10 pages of testimony is so much to hold. And I’d lug them to the airport for the early morning flight to Washington.
And IBM was pretty much as good as its phrase. I feel they thought of firing me a few occasions, however as soon as I noticed Manny Piori, who was the primary director of analysis, after which he was head of the IBM Science Advisory Committee, after which he was varied different issues. As soon as I noticed him furiously writing the top of IBM, who was, at the moment, Thomas J. Watson Jr. And he was writing him to inform him that no matter they did, they shouldn’t fireplace me.
Not surprisingly, Garwin had robust opinions about the USA’ deliberate resumption of the manufacturing of plutonium, meant for a brand new missile warhead, the W87-1.
Garwin: That’s very unhealthy, however it’s a matter of monkey see, monkey do. However it’s not that we have to do this stuff. It’s simply that they don’t wish to be caught quick when the Russians resume testing or the Chinese language resume testing. [The Chinese] have so much to be taught from their assessments as a result of they’ve had solely 40-some complete in historical past in contrast with the hundreds or extra, principally underground. And underground assessments as much as 5 megatons, with the antiballistic missile warhead. So that they don’t want to do that, however they don’t wish to be caught quick. And folks say, “Look, the Russians are testing,” and the Russians have manufactured plutonium and also you aren’t. They don’t really want new plutonium.
Any individual in Congress would say that the Russians are forward of us, that they’ve these hundreds of…they’d 60,000 weapons at one time in 1962, I suppose. They usually might have these weapons that will destroy complete cities. And the USA doesn’t have a comparable variety of weapons. They may destroy industrial facilities. Anyhow, by look, the Individuals would lose the race for look.
Not that the Russians might do something helpful with their weapons, however Russians aren’t constrained by logic. The Chinese language, sadly, underneath Xi Jinping, have misplaced their means. Their means actually is to make issues and promote them to the world, despite the fact that the labor is transferring elsewhere as a matter of relative dimension and value. However I had hoped that earlier than Xi Jinping, starting with Deng Xiaoping, I suppose, that the Chinese language would see the advantage of being provider to the world. However now we’ve a type of commerce struggle with China. And I feel that’s an enormous mistake for the USA. America must encourage China. And though we must always set tariffs, the tariffs must be modest, for my part.
Garwin additionally had robust emotions concerning the surging funding for small, modular nuclear power reactors in the USA and elsewhere. I requested him if he thought these reactors had been more likely to succeed economically the place bigger reactors had not.
Garwin: The reply isn’t any. I feel that they gained’t succeed due to economics. And the start of subsidy for these reactors, they wish to subsidize the “valley of demise.” However you possibly can’t try this as a result of there are numerous competing corporations. You may subsidize all you need, however you possibly can’t get out of the truth that they’re uneconomical. They’re not economical, and they’re going to discover out once they attempt to construct them and once they exhaust the subsidy, they usually can’t make it work. So no, I don’t assume that they’ll work. I feel it’s going to put us in a big plutonium financial system as a way to breed plutonium and reprocess the fabric that accumulates within the reactors.
Does he assume the one solution to progress towards a carbon-neutral power regime is with renewables?
Garwin: Sure. I feel that utilizing—I’m sorry to assert credit score for one thing, however no one has picked it up. A couple of years in the past, I revealed a paper on green hydrogen and inexperienced ammonia. And the bottom line is to make use of the steep trench up the west coast of the USA and Chile and the opposite international locations in Latin America. Inside 100 miles of the coast, there’s this undersea trench the place you possibly can retailer hydrogen in atypical weighted culverts. So it sits on the underside. And it goes down to 5 kilometers or extra. And all you want is one kilometer for 100 bar. You’ll have land-based photo voltaic and land-based wind generators. They might be continually electrolyzing both at floor or at depth, a technique or one other. So you’ll accumulate hydrogen. You’ll retailer it in a bladder which is held down by the detrimental buoyancy of the culverts. And it could simply displace the water as you fill the bladder and as you empty the bladder throughout hydrogen utilization, you’ll ship the hydrogen again to shore. All that was labored out in my paper. And I even say how you’ll begin by making inexperienced ammonia. You’ll get nitrogen from the ambiance after which mix it with the hydrogen from the electrolysis. You can begin small.
And you may simply electrolyze and convert to ammonia and have it trucked away. And it could initially be offered at a excessive worth, which might work as a result of it could be offered for fertilizer. There’s a big marketplace for fertilizer. After which when that will get saturated due to an excessive amount of manufacturing, you then’d have to start out utilizing inexperienced ammonia for gas anyhow.
An abridged model of this text seems within the September 2024 print challenge as “5 Questions for Richard Garwin.”
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